Researching Hakka Music in Taiwan

by Audrey Mazur

       This article is drawn from the field research which I conducted in Taiwan from February 1983 to July 1984. It is a small part of a much larger work, my doctoral dissertation. My work concentrated on the music of the Hakka people living in Taiwan. I wanted to see how Taiwan's constant contact with the West has influenced its folk music: more specifically, what has happened to the traditional music in the rural areas. This is a fascinating area in studies of culture change; that of musical change and continuity within its cultural setting. To this end I focused on the musical life of a conservative and traditional Hakka village in southern Taiwan. For comparison, I also spent time in a more "progressive" Hakka town in the north where change has been more rapid and performances often resemble a Las Vegas night club act.
       When I journeyed to Taiwan in December 1981, it was to be for an extended visit for language study and preliminary doctoral research before going to China. My topic was to be the Chinese folk orchestra and the compositional techniques used for its music. My hopes of continuing my research on the Mainland did not materialize; therefore, I decided to explore the wealth of folk culture found on the island. I was determined to find something new and different. I did.
       In my quest to locate the right research site I dragged friends from school to various towns and villages neighboring Taipei for months. We had a lot of fun on these exploratory trips, returning to school with many tales about the places we went to, the people we met, the traveling and housing. Although these excursions were nothing less than enjoyable, I could not help but envy my colleagues who had only to tote dictionaries and notebooks to the library to do their research.
       My search finally came to an end in November 1982. I was invited to a friend's home in the countryside. Liu Yingmin knew of my interest in Chinese folk music and culture, and thought I might enjoy being in a different type of Chinese community, a Hakka one.
       It is believed that the Hakka people are originally from northern China. During the centuries they migrated throughout China. Toward the end of the Ming Dynasty some of the Hakka people living in northeastern Guangdong Province began their journey to Taiwan where they formed villages based on the farming patterns found in their mainland villages. Due to their migratory nature the term Hakka itself means "guest," and refers to this group of Chinese people linguistically, and not regionally. Though there may be differences due to accents and vocabulary (as with American and British English), Hakka people will be able to communicate with other Hakka regardless of where they are from.
       The trip to Liu's village took over six hours from Taipei. You must first travel to Kaohsiung. From Kaohsiung you can either take the bus, with its local flavor, or a yeji che -- "wild chicken car," a private, unlicensed taxi. From one experience of the death-defying feats of a yeji che driver I learned that it was infinitely better to ride in a bus with tame chickens than in a "wild chicken." At that time this bus ride would often take more than two hours. With the recent reconstruction of the road, it now takes approximately one hour. The scenery during the ride was magnificent; everywhere there were fruit orchards, banana groves, rice fields, mountains and small villages. However, it was when I finally stepped off the bus that I realized I had found Taiwan's secret paradise.
       The village is intimately cradled by mountains which seem to shoot right out of the border of the rice fields. The sky is expansive and neverending. The sweet fragrance of the air was intoxicating. The lush vegetation created a verdant tapestry. None of my travels around the island had brought me to such a beautiful and idyllic place.
       I had just entered a new facet of Chinese life. It was just not being in the countryside that caused my fascination -- my friends and I were quite used to exploring Taiwan's non-urban areas -- but in a traditional agrarian Chinese community, albeit with some modern amenities. This was the kind of community I had only read about.
       I became very intrigued and my mind filled with questions that needed answers. I found out that the population of this village was approximately 98 percent Hakka (the remaining few being either Taiwanese who had moved from neighboring villages to work, or Mainlanders who had married a Hakka). And most important to me was that they maintained their own body of music. To add more elation to this discovery, some of Liu's relatives partook in the tradition. Relying on family guanxi (personal relations, contacts and influence) I was able to meet some of the local musicians.
       Within a matter of weeks I set up shop. The Liu family offered me space and assistance. I moved my recording equipment south, prepared my friend to be a research assistant, and became acquainted with the Hakka people, their history and this village.
       The traditional Hakka music found there falls into one of two categories: a vocal genre called shange (mountain song), and an instrumental genre called bayin (eight sounds). Both genres are still alive, but as I learned through interviews, not unchanged.
       In days long gone it was not unusual to hear songs coming from the fields and mountains when people were working. When the day was over and the workers returned home, an evening's entertainment often consisted of singing, possibly to instrumental accompaniment. It was under these conditions that the shange repertory was orally transmitted and expanded. With the introduction of mechanized farming techniques, radio, television and other means of entertainment, singing for relaxation and amusement began to lose importance in the daily lives of the people.
       The shange repertory consists of three qupai (fixed tunes) -- lao shange, shange zai, ping ban -- and xiaodiao (small songs). Though the qupai are thought of as fixed tunes there is melodic flexibility within each group owing to the performer's individual style.
       Traditionally the text was not set and could be improvised by a skilled performer. Ornamentation is a prerequisite of all Hakka shange. Lao shange is considered the most difficult because it should be textually and rhythmically improvised while simultaneously incorporating ornamentation. The other two have regulated rhythms, but still call for text improvisation and melodic embellishment. The xiaodiao are songs with a set text, melody and rhythm. They also employ ornamentation.
       Song texts are arranged by verses consisting of four lines of seven characters each. Many musicians claim that the shange text is a direct descendant from Tang Dynasty poetry. Songs may be as short as one verse or can be as long as the singer or singers wish it to be if improvising.
       The themes are universal, focusing on different aspects of life such as love, work, family, patriotism, etc. The songs may tell stories or jokes, relay current news items, express grief or sympathy, teach morals or about Buddha, criticize people, spread ideas, and so on. In the past it was common for men and women to flirt using shange, with each singing alternate verses or couplets within a verse. All types of shange make use of the pun and metaphor. A singer who is adept at devising these would always have an enthusiastic audience.
       The singing of shange does not depend on an instrumental accompaniment. If someone does accompany the singer or singers they would use an erxian, which looks like a banhu. Occasionally, a larger version of the erxian, called the huxian, will accompany alongside the erxian. Some musicians liked to use a drum and gongs as well.
       The bayin ensemble, like other ensembles of this nature throughout Taiwan, can be heard at weddings, funerals, temple rituals and various kinds of celebrations. However, this type of music is becoming scarce. The Western-style band is slowly replacing the bayin ensemble at all but the temple activities. Bayin is intimately connected with the different rites performed at the temple. If there are no bayin musicians available a cassette recording of bayin will be used.
       The bayin ensemble consists of string, wind and percussion instruments. The strings are the erxian and huxian. The winds are the suona and haotong (a horizontal flute now made of plastic). The percussion group has the largest number of instruments and is often played by two people. It consists of a drum, various gongs, cymbals, and a wooden block.
       Other types of music can be heard in Liu's village. Japanese songs remembered from the occupation are still sung by the older generation. The younger members of society sing popular songs, Chinese and Western, heard on the radio. Many homes boast a piano or electric keyboard. There is Buddhist chanting in the temples.
       Living and researching in Liu's village was a very special experience for me. I met wonderful people who gave of themselves and helped me immensely with my project. Their musical legacy is a precious jewel that should be wisely preserved.

Audrey R. Mazur is a doctoral candidate in Ethnomusicology at Brown University. She has performed with Music From China since 1986.

Impressions of the Third National Conference on Symphonic Composition

by Li Wei

       The Third National Conference on Symphonic Composition held in Beijing in December, 1991 revealed much about the development of symphonic music in China in recent years. Having returned to China to do research, I was privileged to attend this conference and would like to set down some of my impressions.
       Since the First National Conference on Symphonic Composition in 1983, subsequent conferences of a similar nature called by the Composition Committee of the Chinese Musicians Association have taken place every four years. Participants invited to these conferences have included composers, conductors, theorists, and musicologists. Conference activities usually center on listening to recordings of new works, followed by discussion. It also includes a session on paper presentations, usually dealing with composition theory and analysis. A major conference on composition and theory such as this, organized and sponsored at the official or semi-official level, is uncommon in the West. It serves an important function in fostering exchanges among composers, theorists, and musicologists. It is my understanding that due to various factors, the development of serious music in China in recent years has been less than ideal. That this conference was held under such circumstances underlines the urgent need felt by its organizers.
       Conference participants numbered around fifty, thirty of whom were composers; the rest were conductors, musicologists, and journalists. Also attending the Conference were former Association chairperson Lu Ji and present chairperson Li Huanzhi. The first four days were devoted to listening to recordings, the last two to readings of papers and discussion. Among the forty-eight recordings submitted to the Conference were recent works that were received favorably among music circles, such as "Symphony No. 4" by Zhu Jianer (winner of the 1990 Queen Marie-Jose Prize for Composition), "Symphonic Rhapsody" by Liu Yuan (outstanding composition winner of the 1991 Shanghai Spring Music Festival), and "Symphony No. 3" by Wang Xilin.
       My overall impression is that Post Romanticism and Impressionism dominated the musical styles. The influences of Bartok, Stravinsky, and Shostakovich were also prominent. By contrast, influences of the Second Vienna School were minimal. This is perhaps a reflection of the political and cultural isolation experienced by China, the Soviet Union, and Eastern Europe this century. In addition, individualism has been long ignored in Chinese compositions. The emphasis on a "national character" has perhaps overshadowed the search for an individual vocabulary. This was strikingly apparent in some of the recordings heard at the Conference. The lack of any clearly defined individual styles greatly weakened their presentation and artistic integrity.        This Conference revealed several noteworthy trends in mainland Chinese compositions which may point the way for the future:

1) The combination of Chinese and Western instruments has become increasingly popular, especially concertos for traditional instruments and Western orchestra. Many of the compositions were of this type, such as "Symphony No. 4" (for di and string orchestra) by Zhu Jianer; "Mystic Fragrance" [An Xiang] (for zheng and orchestra) by Luo Zhongrong; "Li Palace Lamentation" [Li Gong Yuan] (zheng concerto) by Rao Yuyan; and "Mirage" [Shen Chao] (for matou qin, xun, and string orchestra) by Yong Rubu. While combining Chinese and Western instruments is no longer innovative, these works sought, to varying degrees, to enrich orchestral sonorities, create alternate forms of orchestral music, and promote a more harmonious union of Chinese and Western instruments.
2) The introduction of MIDI (Musical Instruments Digital Interface) music caught everyone's attention. Although some may question the appropriateness of this type of music at a conference such as this, there is no doubt that with advancements in modern technology and improvements in MIDI hardware/software, this new music, along with computer-generated music, will rapidly take hold in China. At present, the center of development of MIDI music is the Wuhan Conservatory. The works of composers such as Liu Jian explored symphonic manifestations of MIDI music and its integration with conventional instruments to define new acoustical dimensions.
3) The practical application of a musical theory or system to composition is no easy task, and one which has no tradition in China. Not long ago, He Xuntian took a daring step in applying his "RD System" of music theory to his compositions. In the last few years, Zhao Xiaosheng's "Taiji System in Composing" advocated using a yin-yang music theory inspired by the Yi Jing [I Ching] as the basis for formulating pitch, rhythm, and timbre in composing. His piano concerto, "Sounds of Liao" [Liao Yin], heard at the Conference is a work that was composed using this system. Due to the profundity of the theory behind the Taiji System, it was not easily understood. Its true value, however, does not rest with a few compositions by Zhao Xiaosheng; rather, it represents an innovative approach to the creation of new music and offers an unique system of composition.

       The Conference also heard taped recordings of works by several Chinese composers studying abroad, such as Chen Yi, Zhou Long, and Qu Xiaosong in selections from Music From China's 1991 "Premiere Works" concert; and excerpts from Tan Dun's "Nine Songs."
       For future conferences, I would strongly encourage more participation by overseas Chinese composers, even if only through the submission of recorded works. For promoting the development of symphonic music within China and furthering exchanges with outside music circles, the benefits would be great indeed.

Li Wei recently returned from China where he conducted his dissertation field work under a Mellon Foundation grant from Columbia University.

News and Notes

Readers' Forum

Dear Chen Yi:
       I have received your letter together with the concert recording and program notes....
       Last week, Professor Wang Zhenya and I submitted selections from the recording to the National Conference on Symphonic Composition. Some listeners claim to have detected a "regressive" trend in these works. I feel that one should not look at compositions in terms of "trends" (we are too used to this custom here). When composing, it is best not to be overly conscious about a particular style; experimenting with a new style does not require a total rejection of what came before. Music evolves when necessary. Since innovation is inherent in any style, what is admirable is the ability to change spontaneously....Creativity does not imply a complete change of style.

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Newsletter Vol. 2, No. 1
Spring 1992
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