Article Index
Newsletter Vol. 2, No. 4
Winter 1992
English Version
For centuries, a rich heritage of polyphonic songs has been preserved and nurtured among China's fifty-six ethnic groups. But because this musical tradition was historically confined largely to far-flung rural and border regions, it was a long-held belief -- even in professional music circles -- that "there is no polyphonic folk music in China." Beginning in the 1950's, new field research efforts brought scholars deep into remote village, mountain, and border communities. There they discovered a wealth of polyphonic songs.
In April, 1982, the Culture Ministry and the Chinese Musicians' Association held a National Conference on Polyphonic Songs of the Provinces and Autonomous Regions in Guangxi. Representatives from Yunnan, Guizhou, Fujian, Guangxi and Guangdong demonstrated the multi-voice singing of twelve ethnic cultures. Subsequently, in the course of compiling a collection of Chinese folk songs, nationwide research uncovered polyphonic songs in more folk cultures. To date, as many as twenty-four ethnic cultures are found to have preserved a distinct body of polyphonic songs: the Han, Zhuang, Buyi, Dong, Maonan, Mulao, Yi, Hani, Bai, Lisu, Naxi, Lahu, Jingpo, Qiang, Zang, Miao, She, Yao, Tujia, Wa, Gaoshan, Mongolian, Korean and Russian.
Aside from Han labor songs, sung throughout China, and songs of the Mongolian, Korean and Russian peoples, most polyphonic songs are found in the southwestern and south-central regions. This geographic distribution is the result of certain historical and social factors. All ethnic cultures that retain polyphonic song traditions, especially among the southern minorities, share the following similarities in social structure, cultural background and historical development:
1) The long-standing policy of "benign neglect" by successive Han imperial rulers toward ethnic minorities retarded the development of these societies in the south; many retained remnants of a primitive, clan-based culture. The lack of adequate transportation and absence of outside influence created self-contained societies where ancient tribal customs and traditions prevailed. Among these is the age-old custom of open selection of marriage partners and courtship activities by groups of men and women. Polyphonic songs, as an integral part of this tradition, were thus long preserved.
2) Southern ethnic cultures all share a similar aesthetic toward their folk songs and song festivals. This can be seen in the gexu of the Zhuang, zuolang of the Buyi, zouzhai of the Dong, zoupo of the Mulao, ganniao of the Yao, youfang and zuoyueliang of the Miao people. All song festivals provide social occasions for the entire tribe, with communal singing serving as a means of courtship. Except for the solos and duets, choral singing predominates. These songs are sung antiphonally by separate groups of men and women.
It is interesting to note that among some ethnic cultures, or their sub-tribes, folk singing consists exclusively of polyphonic songs. Such is the case of the Mulao people where not a single monophonic song exists; or some of the Songpan Qiang mountain tribes of Sichuan province whose singing is strictly polyphonic. Some ethnic groups perform only polyphonic songs on special occasions. This is true of the Dong tribes who reside in the Lizhong and Congjiang regions of Guizhou province. For their performances during zouzhai—a time of festive celebration when it is customary to travel as guests to neighboring villages, some over a hundred miles away—the men and women will sing only duige [antiphonal singing in call and response]. The Debao Zhuang culture of Guangxi province also performs a two-voice duige at their song festivals. It is evident that polyphonic songs are greatly cherished by China's ethnic peoples and occupy an important niche in folk music culture.
3) All the southern ethnic cultures that have polyphonic songs, other than the Wa and Gaoshan, have ancestral roots that can be traced back to the Baiyue, Wuximan and Shiqiang peoples of ancient China. Before the Qin and Han dynasties, the Zhuang, Buyi, Dong, Maonan and Mulao belonged to the Xiou and Luoyue clans of the Baiyue people; the Miao, She, Yao and Tujia are of direct descent from the Wuximan people; and the Yi, Naxi, Lisu, Lahu, Jingpo, Hani, Bai, Qiang and Zang are all related to the ancient Shiqiang people. Those ethnic cultures that have descended along related ancestral lines often share similar linguistic traits, as well as similarities of social and cultural background and ethnic character. All these provided a common ground for the creation and dissemination of polyphonic songs.
4) Most of these ethnic cultures have undergone a stage of agricultural clan society. Anthropologists and social historians have shown that agriculture followed in the wake of vigorous economic development in matriarchal clan societies. With the development of agriculture came a more settled lifestyle. The relatively stable livelihood of farming helped to promote communal singing during work, entertainment, ritual and courtship activities. Hence, the foundation for polyphonic songs was laid. On the other hand, livelihood based on hunting and herding, without permanent settlements, contrasts with the collective effort necessary for farming. With inadequate tools and forces of production, agriculture in ancient times relied mainly on collectivism. The lifestyle of nomadic tribesmen, which predominated in the North, did not nurture the development of communal singing and thus the creation of polyphonic songs. Since the agriculturally based cultures were found mostly in the south, the polyphonic song tradition has tended to concentrate there.
Polyphonic songs of different ethnic cultures in various regions display distinct styles and local colors, and differ in their performance practice and musical form. Nevertheless, they share certain notable characteristics.
In choral ensemble, every part improvises on a central melody to create variants. While these multi-voice songs can be polyphonic, heterophonic, or homophonic in texture, a horizontal, linear motion is always prominent. Folk singers do not normally pay particular attention to harmony itself. Nevertheless, through generations of practicing their art, most cultures have accumulated knowledge to various degrees regarding vertical tonal effects. A certain amount of systematic approach is found among some cultures. This is the seed for a rudimentary cognition of harmony.
Other than the Russian peoples who use a natural diatonic scale, all the ethnic cultures use mostly a pentatonic scale with no half tones, or a diatonic scale based on a pentatonic structure. There is frequent occurrence of major second, fourth, fifth, minor third and their vertical combinations.
A common approach to performance format is that regardless of the size of the group singing, the principal vocal part (usually soprano) is performed by one singer who is the leader; the bass and other vocal parts have a supporting role. The lead singer is at liberty to improvise and elaborate on the melody. The involvement of more than one person in the principal voice would muddle its performance. Since the onus of carrying the central melody, organizing and conducting is delegated to the lead singer, the position calls for someone endowed with a good voice, musical talent and cultured background. Normally, only the most distinguished or veteran singers are allowed to take on this responsibility.
[Translated by Susan Cheng]
Professor Fan Zuyin is Dean of the China Conservatory of Music, Vice-Chairman of the Chinese Traditional Music Society, and Editor-in-Chief of "Chinese Music" journal.
While I was still at the Central Conservatory, Professor Lin Shicheng told me about an American scholar, John Myers, who was conducting dissertation research on the pipa. My curiosity was aroused, and I wondered how a Westerner would approach the study of this instrument. Several years later, I finally had a chance to read Mr. Myers's book. With its red cover and a foreword in Chinese calligraphy by Professor Lin, it is a blend of East and West.
The Way of the Pipa, which uses as its central focus the Hua Shi Pu (1819), the earliest published collection of pipa scores, is organized into three parts. Part I provides a historical background for the pipa and a short discourse on the aesthetics of Chinese music. The author perceives the history of the pipa as four overlapping periods which he characterizes as "importation," "assimilation," "classical," and "modern." The instrument's evolution consists of, first, the introduction of various kinds of Central Asian lutes and music to China; next, their sinicization; the development of solo and ensemble repertoire with the emergence of schools of playing; and finally, the application of Western composition concepts to traditional pipa music today.
The Hua collection's grouping of the repertoire into categories by size, school, and style of interpretation provides a convenient basis for discerning patterns of consistency in musical structure. To analyze the skeletal nineteenth-century gongchi notation which denotes the essence of the music is, the author says, to observe "structures that have already been summarized according to the aesthetic values of the Chinese musicians who treasured this music." The division of classical pipa music into wen-wu categories "reflects the balance between passivity and aggressiveness in human life and nature" and is analogous to the Daoist yin-yang polarity. This theme of wen-wu interpretation is inherent in the organization of the repertoire in the Hua collection and recurs throughout this analytical study.
The five chapters of Part II, "The Seamless Cloth" (also the title of one of the short pieces), are devoted to a systematic analysis of musical structure of the xiban (short, 68-beat melodies) and daqu (large, multi-sectional suites) with an abundance of tables and musical examples. Discussion of the interrelationships, similarities and differences is directed at various levels of melodic structure in terms of tonal material, targets of linear movement, phrase divisions, motives, etc. A point about structural consistency is made interesting by a comparative transcription showing the gongchi notation of the Hua collection, the later Li collection (1895), and a modern performance version of the same piece of music.
Most titles in the Hua collection fall into categories of extramusical themes that evoke emotion or imagery, or that relate to musical structure. Part III, "Music and Imagery," discusses patterns of correspondence between recurring themes in the titles and the recurrence of certain musical characteristics. A comparison of xiban titles with emotive (shuqing) connotations of "crying" and "happy" reveals a pattern of wen pieces that emphasize the kuyin -- crying sound -- and wu pieces that emphasize the huanyin-- happy sound -- modal structures. The daqu, generally more programmatic than the xiban, often contain subtitled sections with contrasting musical features that evoke extended chains of extra-musical associations.
The Way of the Pipa is a thorough study of the history and musicology of the instrument; the author has done substantial research into Chinese musical aesthetics and related subjects. Most significantly, though, the book is a commendable effort by a Western scholar to examine Chinese culture and aesthetics through this venerable instrument.
[Wu Man]
The Archaeology of Music in Ancient China: 2000 Years of Acoustical Experimentation, ca. 1400 B.C. - A.D. 750, by Fritz Kuttner (1903-1991). 1990, 256 pages, photos, tables, illustrations, diagrams, bibliography. Paragon House.
The archaeological study of Chinese music has always been considered challenging, because it demands not only multi-disciplinary skills but also extensive knowledge of sinology, especially in the fields of history, the arts, ideography, and ancient musical theory. Kuttner's ambitious endeavor in this monograph was to bring some new insights and findings, based on his forty years of research in China's antiquity, to acoustical experimentation in ancient China. The scope of this study, as the author defined it, was limited to the area of ideophones, including metallophones (i.e., bronze bells and drums) and lithophones made of limestone, sandstone, marble, jade, jadeite, and nephrite in the periods from the Shang to the Tang dynasties.
The book is in three major parts. Part I is an introductory survey of the basic aspects of archaeomusicological study in China and the West. The second part is an acoustical exploration of ancient Chinese musical instruments. The author focuses on the different types of ancient musical technology involved in the production of bronze bells, cauldrons, jade pi disks, lithophones, and bronze drums, with illustrations and numerous photos, tables, and diagrams. Although recent archaeological findings, such as those from the excavation of the Marquis of Tseng's tomb at Sui Xian in Hebei province, are also included in the discussion, they ideally deserve more attention and substantial elaboration. The final part is a series of articles dealing with some particular problems or issues that the author had encountered in his scholarly inquiry, such as source studies, documentation, and methodologies.Fritz Kuttner started his long journey of Chinese music study in 1939 when he came to China as a German refugee. This book, which he completed in the last years of his life, is certainly his major contribution to the archaeology of Chinese music.
[Li Wei]
1. The competition is open to composers of all nationalities, with no age limit.
2. Works must be written for a chamber ensemble of from two to seven performers, and should be from six to ten minutes in length. Instrumentation must be from the following (one instrument apiece): dizi, pipa, zheng, sanxian or liuqin, erhu (doubling on gaohu or banhu) or zhonghu, yangqin, ruan, and percussion.
3. No works that have previously won awards, or have been previously published, performed in public, or used commercially in whole or part or in any other version are eligible.
4. Composers retain the copyright to their compositions.
5. All submissions must be accompanied by an official entry form, available from Music From China.
6. Scores will not be returned; applicants should keep their original scores and submit copies only.
7. The decision of the judges will be final. The judges reserve the right to divide awards, or to decline to make an award.
Article Index
Newsletter Vol. 2, No. 4
Winter 1992
Big5 Version
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¼Ô ¯ª ½® ±Ð ±Â : ¥_ ¨Ê ¤¤ °ê µ ¼Ö ¾Ç °| °| ªø¡B ¤¤ °ê ¶Ç ²Î µ ¼Ö ¾Ç ·| °Æ ·| ªø¡B¡m¤¤ °ê µ ¼Ö¡n ¥D ½s¡C
ªø · ¤¤ ¼Ö ¹Î ¯S ÁÜ ¤Ç ¯÷ ³ù ¤j ¾Ç ¥Á ±Ú µ ¼Ö ¾Ç ±Ð ±Â ºa ÂE ´¿ ¥ý ¥Í ©ó ¤Q ¤@ ¤ë ¤G ¤Q ¤@ ¤é ¤U ¤È ¦b ¯Ã ¬ù ¥B ªL ¤h ªG ¹Ï ®Ñ À] Á| ¦æ Á¿ ®y , ÃD ¥Ø ¬°¡m±q ¥Õ ¨ì °Û : ¸f ¦± ªº °Û µÄ ÃÀ ³N¡n¡C ¦P ®É ¥Ñ ì ¼s ¦{ ¸f ¼@ ¹Î ºt û ¤B ¬h ^ ¤k ¤h ¥Î ¨ã ¦³ ¨å «¬ ©Ê ªº Á¿ ®y ©Ò z ¦U Ãþ ºt °Û §Î¦¡ ¥Ü S ºt °Û ¸f ¦± ¤ù Â_ , ¥H §U Å¥ ²³ ´` ²z ½× ¤À ªR ªº «ä ¸ô ªY ½à µ ¼Ö¡B §ó ²` ¤J ¦a ²z ¸Ñ ¸f ¦± ªº ºt °Û¡C
ºa ÂE ´¿ ±Ð ±Â ±N ¸f ¦± ªº ºt °Û §Î¦¡ Âk ¯Ç ¬° ±q ¥Õ ¨ì ¯Â ºq °Û ªº ¤K Ó ºØ Ãþ : ¥Õ¡B ¤f ¥j¡B Ær ¹ª ¥Õ¡B ¥Õ ÆV¡B ¤ì ³½¡B ºu ªá¡B ¤C ¦r ²M¡B ¤p ¦± , ¨Ì ¨ä ¦b ªí ¹F ¤å ¦r ®É ©Ò ¥Î µ ¼Ö ©Ê ¦] ¯À ¤§ ¤ñ ¨Ò ¨Ó ±Æ ¦C¡C ¥L ±N µ ¼Ö ©Ê ¦] ¯À ·§ ¬A ¬° µü ®æ¡B ¥y¦¡¡B ©ç ¤l¡B ¼Ö µ¡B ¸` «µ¡B ±Û «ß ©M ¦ñ «µ µ¥ ¤C ºØ¡C¡§ ¥Õ¡¨ ¤£ ¥] ¬A ¤W z ¦U ºØ µ ¼Ö ©Ê ¦] ¯À ( ¥Ü S ºt °Û :< ¥´ ¯« > ¤¤ ¥l ®Û ^ ¹D ¥Õ );¡§ ¤f ¥Õ¡¨ ¤§ ¥x µü ¦] ¦³ ¥ ¤· ©M ©ã Ãý ¦Ó ±a µü ®æ ¤§ µ ¼Ö ©Ê ¦] ¯À ( ¥Ü S ºt °Û :< ®ç ªá ®° > ¤ù Â_ );¡§ Ær ¹ª ¥Õ¡¨ ¬° ÄY ®æ ¥| ¨¥ ¥y , ¥B ±a ¥´ À» ¼Ö ¦ñ «µ ¤§ µ ¼Ö ©Ê ( ¥Ü S ºt °Û :< ¤Q ¤ ³e > ¤ù Â_ );¡§ ¥Õ ÆV ¡¨ °£ ¤W z ¦U ¶µ ¥~ ÁÙ ¨ã ³W «ß ©Ê ªº ©ç ¤l »P ¸` «µ , Án ¦ü ¼Æ ¨Ó Ä_ ©Î ¬ü °ê ¶Â ¤H ¤å ¤Æ ¤¤ ªº rag( ¥Ü S ºt °Û :< ¬h ¼Ý ¶Ç ®Ñ > ¤§¡§ ¬} ©Ð¡¨ ¤ù Â_ );¡§ ¤ì ³½¡¨ ¬° ¥[ ¤F ¼Ö µ ªº »¡ °Û , ¦ý µL ³W «ß ©Ê ªº ©ç ¤l¡B ¸` «µ¡B ±Û «ß ©M ¦ñ «µ ( ¥Ü S ºt °Û :< Ĭ ¤p ©f ¤T Äd ·s ¦ );¡§ ºu ªá¡¨ µL ©ç ¤l , ±a ¦ñ «µ ¸` «µ ¦Û ¥Ñ ¦a ºt °Û , °Û µÄ ³B ²z Ãþ ¦ü¡§ µØ ±m¡¨ ¼Ö ¬q ;¡§ ¤C ¦r ²M ¡¨ ¤§ ±Û «ß ² ³æ ,¡§ ¤p ¦±¡¨ ¤§ ±Û «ß «h Àu ¬ü °Ê Å¥ , ©Ò ¦³ ªº µ ¼Ö ©Ê ¦] ¯À ¦b ¦¹ ³£ ±o ¨ì ¤F ³Ì ¥R ¤À ªº µo ´§ ( ¥H ¤W ¤T ºØ §Î¦¡ ¥H < ·n ¬õ Àë ¤Æ ¦ò «e ¿O > ¤ù Â_ ¤Î ¥þ ¦± §@ ¥Ü S ºt °Û )¡C °Ñ ¥[ Á¿ ®y ªº º¡ ³õ Å¥ ²³ ©l ²× »E ºë ·| ¯« ¦a ²â Å¥¡B ±¡ ¤£ ¦Û ¸T ¦a ³Ü ªö¡B ¤J ¤ì ¤T ¤À ¦a ´£ °Ý , ³Ì «á ¤~ ¤ß º¡ ·N ¨¬ ¦a Â÷ ³õ¡C
ÁÙ ¬O §Ú ¦b µ ¼Ö ¾Ç °| çE ®Ñ ªº ®É Ô , ªL ¥Û «° ±Ð ±Â ´N ´¿ §i ¶D §Ú , ¦³ ¤@ ¦ì ¥s ¬ù ¿«¡E ±ö ªº ¬ü °ê ªB ¤Í ¥¿ ¦b ¼g ¦³ Ãö ¤¤ °ê µ\ µ] ªº ¬ã ¨s ½× ¤å¡C ¦Ñ ¥~ ¼g µ\ µ] ½× ¤å ?! §Ú ·í ®É ı ±o ¤Q ¤À ¦n ©_ , «Ü ·Q ª¾ ¹D ¦è ¤è ¤H ¹ï µ\ µ] ªº ¤F ¸Ñ µ{ «×¡C ®É ¹j ¼Æ ¦~ , ³Ì ªñ ¦³ ©¯ Ū ¨ì ¤F ±ö ³Õ ¤h ªº ³o ¥»¡mµ\ µ] ¤§ ¸ô - ¤¤ °ê µ\ µ] µ ¼Ö ªº µ² ºc ©M ·N ¶H¡n¡C ¬õ ¦â ªº ºë ¸Ë «Ê ± , °t ¤W ªL ±Ð ±Â ¥Î ¤¤ °ê ¤ò µ§ ¦r ´£ ªº §Ç ¨¥ , ¯u ¥¿ ªº ¤¤ ¦è ¦X ¾À !
§@ ªÌ ¥H ¤¤ °ê ¾ú ¥v ¤W ³Ì ¦ ¥¿¦¡ ¦L ¦æ ªº µ\ µ] ÃÐ -¡mµØ ¤ó ÃСn(1819 ¦~ )- ¬° ¬ã ¨s °ò ¦¡C ¥þ ®Ñ ¤À ¬° ¤T ¤j ³¡ ¤À , ¨C Ó ³¡ ¤À ¤S ¤À ¬° Y ¤z ³¹ ¸`¡C ²Ä ¤@ ³¡ ¤À ¥] ¬A ¤G Ó ³¹ ¸`¡C ²Ä ¤@ ³¹ ¥þ ± ¦a ¤¶ ²Ð ¤F ±q ¤¤ °ê ¥» ¤g ªº ¼u ¼· ¼Ö ¯³ º~ ¤l ¨ì ¦è °ì ¶Ç ¤J ªº ¦± ¶µ µ\ µ] , ¸g º© ªø ªº ºt ÅÜ¡B ¿Ä ¦X , §Î ¦¨ ¤F ¦p ¤µ ªº µ\ µ] ¾ú ¥v ¹L µ{ , ³ð »¡ ©ú ¤F µ\ µ] ¦b ¦a ¤è µ ¼Ö , ¦p Ĭ ¦{ ¼u µü¡B ¥| ¤t ²M µ¡B ºÖ «Ø «n µ ¤¤ ªº ¯S ®í §@ ¥Î µ¥ , ¥H ¤Î ºt «µ ¬y ¬£ ªº ¨Ó ·½ ©M µo ®i¡C ²Ä ¤G ³¹ «h µÛ « ½× z ¤F ¤¤ °ê µ ¼Ö ªº ¬ü ¾Ç «ä ·Q , ¤À ªR ¤F µ\ µ] ¤å ªZ ¦± ºt «µ ªº ¬ü ¾Ç ¯S ÂI , ¤Î ¼Ö ¦± ªº ¼Ð ÃD ¦b ¤¤ °ê µ ¼Ö ¤¤ ªº « n ¦a ¦ì¡C ¦P ®É ¤] ±j ½Õ ¤F ¤¤ °ê ¥j ¥N¡§ ¥@ ¶¡ ¸U ª« ¬Ò ®§ ®§ ¬Û Ãö¡¨ ªº ¬ü ¾Ç «ä ·Q , ¥H ¦¹ Æ[ ÂI ¨Ó »¡ ©ú ¤¤ °ê µ ¼Ö »P ø µe¡B ¤å ¾Ç ©M ¸Ö ºq µ¥ ÃÀ ³N §Î¦¡ ¤§ ¶¡ ªº ¦@ ©Ê Ãö Áý¡C
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¦³ ·N °Ñ ÁÉ ¤§ §@ ¦± ®a ½Ð ¤Î ¦ ¦V ªø · ¤¤ ¼Ö ¹Î ¨ç ¯Á °Ñ ÁÉ ¥Ó ½Ð ªí¡C ¦a §} ¦p ¤U :
Music From China
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Article Index
Newsletter Vol. 2, No. 4
Winter 1992
BG Version
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